Holocaust Denial Essay Example for Free

Holocaust Denial Essay David Irving has claimed that the Holocaust was a hoax and that there were no gas chambers in Auschwitz; discuss the evidence for and against this claim. One is astonished in the study of history at the recurrence of the idea that evil must be forgotten, distorted, skimmed over. The difficulty, of course, with this philosophy is that history loses its value as an incentive and example; it paints perfect men and noble nations, but it does not tell the truth. -W.E.B Du Bois, Black Reconstruction, 1935. There could not be a more appropriate account to go with the debate between Holocaust deniers, and those who see it as a genuine event in history. From our mid teens we are taught about the events that occurred under Hitlers reign, the most horrific of those being the mass genocide of an estimated eleven million people, many of which Jews, during the Holocaust. It is also taught that the most famous extermination camp existed at Auschwitz, where up to 10000 people were exterminated per day. These are exactly the kind of facts that were presented to me during school, and to many others; some individuals, however, claim that this horrific event never took place. Those who claim the Holocaust did not appear as traditional history describes, believe that the current mainstream understanding of the Holocaust is the result of a deliberate Jewish conspiracy created to advance the interest of Jews at the expense of other nations. (1) A statement remarkably closely related to the anti-Semitic views of the Nazis. In the case of Holocaust deniers, it is more of a case of a lack of evidence which they use to promote their views; no conclusive evidence has been presented, with numerous Holocaust deniers admitting to have lied about so called facts. (2) The main claims which Holocaust deniers make are that the Nazis had no formal policy or plan of exterminating Jews. That Nazis did not use gas chambers to mass-murder Jews, and that the figure of between 5 and 6 million Jewish deaths is a significant exaggeration and the actual number is much lower, a few hundred thousand at most. Other claims include the notion that the documentary evidence in support of the Holocaust, photographs and the Diary of Anne Frank for example, is fabricated, that survivor testimonies are unreliable, and that the Nazi prisoners confessions were obtained through the use of torture a process which can lead to inaccurate information. (3) One example of survivor testimonies being unpredictable is an excerpt of a conversation David Irving supposedly had with a survivor: IRVING: You said you saw smoke coming from the crematoria? SURVIVOR: Absolutely IRVING: Is that correct? SURVIVOR: Correct IRVING: But crematoria do not smoke, Mrs Altman. Go and visit your local crematorium in Sydney (Evans (2002) page 142) Irving took challenging the Holocaust to the extreme, and proclaimed himself as a Hitler supporter, which may have something to do with him living, working and studying in Germany for many years. In Irvings book, Hitlers War, he states that Hitler did not order the extermination of Europes Jews: the mass killings must have been carried out by Himmler and his cohorts behind Hitlers back (4) The Institute of Historical Research (IHR) states that The Institute does not deny the Holocaust. And that there is no dispute over the fact that large numbers of Jews were deported to concentration camps and ghettos, or that many Jews died or were killed during World War II. But that the Holocaust the alleged extermination of some six million Jews (most of them by gassing) is a hoax and should be recognized as such by Christians and all informed, honest and truthful men everywhere. More than being just a pro-Nazi viewpoint, Holocaust deniers believe that the death-toll amount which is widely accepted is a falsehood in an attempt to get more compensation, and sympathy. It is believed that the interest of the Zionist movement is to augment the amount of Holocaust deaths so that their gains will be greater. (5) The Holocaust deniers maintain that the Holocaust is a myth in order to establish the possibilities which can occur when an individual or group of people try to play God. This claim may have resulted from various factors, and in many cases of a denial, a particular political agenda backs it up, along with their own personal beliefs colouring their view. To fully understand the claims of these people, both sides of the debate must be looked at. The case which acknowledges the Holocaust as it is presented has much more convincing evidence, the most notable of which being photographs, video footage and personal accounts. Where the Holocaust deniers get their supposed evidence from however, is the jigsaw in which the evidence which shows the Holocaust as the event were taught it to be is made up of. Those denying the event say that the pieces of primary sources which prove the existence of the Holocaust, are in fact fabricated in an attempt to make people think that certain events happened when thy in fact, did not. (1) There are many accounts from survivors of the Holocaust, a selection of which exists in Lyn Smiths Forgotten Voices of the Holocaust, within which mentions the implementation of the final solution. In the same note it is said that upon arrival, most were sent immediately to the gas chamber and crematorium. (6). For females in concentration camps it was an even more shocking ordeal regularly being raped, and on giving birth having their babies taken from them to be murdered. Dennis Avey, a British prisoner of war at Auschwitz gives his account: Now dreadful things were happening in Auschwitz-Birkenau during 1944. They were gassing and burning thousands of people who could not work any more because of their failing strength; I knew practically everything that was going on thereThey just put them into the gas chambers using this Zyklon B gas and then they were burned. And this happened day in and day out. (6) There are many other accounts which describe similar stories, such a vast amount of matching testimonies can not possibly be a fabrication, but that is not the only evidence which supports the events of the Holocaust and Auschwitz. There are many photographs of the gas chambers, and of mass graves. Not only is there masses of evidence recorded to verify the authenticity of the Holocaust; but it is backed up by sworn testimony from both victims and the culprits. In addition to this there is evidence which Allied soldiers discovered when they liberated the camps. There is also a host of documentary evidence; the Nazis were extremely particular about keeping records, some of which were presented as evidence to the Nuremberg Tribunal and a set of evidence from several post-war trials. As well as archaeological evidence as further proof, there are bookings by the SS for the special trains to Auschwitz and other extermination camps. Of course, the issue which arises with both of these claims, and history as a whole, is that unless someone is actually present at an event and experiencing something, they have no way of knowing exactly what went on during a given time and date. It is for these reasons which we need to rely on sources other than ourselves to understand the past, and a primary source is the most reliable place to look first. Talking with a Holocaust survivor, reading the diaries like that of a certain Anne Frank hiding from the Gestapo, and looking at pictures and videos from Nazi Germany at that time allows for the closest link possible from today to the days gone by, and rejecting these ideas as a fabrication severs the best link to the truth. Holocaust deniers will be inclined to believe what they want to be true, even if it does not match up historically. The Holocaust was a dismal time not only for the Jewish race, but also a cataclysmic event in the history of mankind. The idea that not all people are equal and those of less value need to be exterminated is a notion that should never have occurred. The evidence that we have today appears to confirm that the Jewish Genocide by the Nazi people was a real event. In addition, it is extremely difficult to reasonably doubt this event and believe that people would lie about such an ordeal. References 1. Gizon, A. (2009). Holocaust. www.projectaladin.org. [Last accessed 23 June 2010] 2. Nikzor, P. (2008). David Irving. www.nizkor.org. [Last accessed 23 June 2010] 3. Lipstadt, D. (2009). Denying the Holocaust. www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars. [Last accessed 23 June 2010] 4. Irving, D. (1991). Hitlers War. London: Focal Point Publications. 5. Austin, B. (2004). Holocaust Denial. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. [Last accessed 23 June 2010] 6. Smith, L. (2005). Forgotten Voices of the Holocaust. London: Ebury Press. P.156/210

Metropolitan Opera House Essay Example for Free

Metropolitan Opera House Essay Maria Callas gives an outstanding performance at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. This is unsurprising as Callas was one of the most famous sopranos of her time and a recognised Diva. The Newspaper review is gushing in praise of Callas who gives a powerful and convincing performance. It is noted that the reviewer had some reservations on a previous performance but the performance of Violetta in La Traviata left the reviewer in no doubt that Callas gave a performance that was the best interpretation he had ever witnessed in all his time attending and reviewing operas. The performance as Viloletta is a more congenial part than previously seen by the reviewer and it has so much passion and personal interpretation that it is difficult to distinguish between the dramatic and vocal performances. The whole performance seems real and the acting and singing become one, the perfect operatic qualities. The words in an opera can seem disjointed and difficult to express when read without music and it is Callas who brings the script and plot alive by sewing all the parts together to make an outstanding dramatic performance in conjunction with the musical performance by the orchestra.. She still had the slight wobble in her voice which is evident on the CD in some places, for example at 1:19 and 02:00 when the singing becomes fortissimo. However her reputation as a performer was so great that her fans and the reviewer where able to forgive this perceived fault and even claim that it added to the intensity of her performance. It shows emotion in the voice and this adds to the tragic quality of the roles often played by female opera singers. The CD shows a wide range of singing from the initial pianissimo start and the pizzicato accompaniment from the string section building up to 1:13 when Callas builds to an ornament at 1:19. The whole performance is very smooth and displays and you can hear the passion in Callas’ voice when she expresses her feelings. The reviewer mentions her striking presence which is an important part of opera throughout the world. Callas’ presence was reinforced by her status as a Diva and her reputation was worldwide. She had performed for the previous 7 years at La Scala in Milan to triumphant reviews and had gained publicity 4 years earlier when her appearance changed dramatically having lost 30 kilos in weight. She was married to a prominent businessman and Opera lover and was on the verge of starting a relationship with a world famous shipping magnate. Callas was portrayed as a Diva in much the same way as someone like Madonna is today and the public interest in her life only served to fuel her presence and reputation on the stage. Opera is performance on a grand scale so much so that opera venues are some of the grandest, most iconic and well recognised places in the world, for example the Sydney Opera House. Those who succeed in such an environment must be larger than life personalities. Maria Callas was certainly a Diva and her life was followed and reported by fans and the press alike. Her life was lived in the glare of publicity and even though she led a private life following her retirement in 1965 she still attracted great interest when she made public appearances. It is easy to see the appeal of her character and that many people liked to think of her as a tragic heroine due to difficult events in her life. In many ways this mirrored the Operatic roles she played with so much conviction it sometimes blurred the boundaries between reality and performance.

Energy Efficiency of a PRO Process

Energy Efficiency of a PRO Process Introduction The global energy demand is expeditiously increasing due to rapidly expanding population and their improved living standard. Although fossil fuels are mostly contributing to fulfilling this demand, the consumption has already exceeded the capacity of sustainable energy production (Efraty, 2013)(Yip et al., 2011). It is often claimed that we have enough reserves of coal, gas, and oil while the real scenario is different. Environment scientists reported that energy reserves are decreasing with time, which would be diminished within few decades (Figure 1). The lifetime of these reserves would be extended slightly if new reservoirs can be identified. Discovering new wells is becoming harder day-by-day and if it is discovered, the amounts of fuels would be significantly lower than the ones that have been found in the past1. Figure 1: The trends of global fossil fuels reserves[1] The rising energy demand and limited reserves of fossil fuels have motivated to researchers for exploring alternatives sources of renewable energy. Researchers have already discovered various sources of energy while wind, solar, tidal and biomass have been used for sustainable energy production (Straub, Deshmukh, Elimelech, 2015).ÂÂ   However, expensive equipment and high installation cost coupled with the uneven distribution of energy throughout the year have prevented them from being used widely (Sharif, Merdaw, Aryafar, Nicoll, 2014). Recently, a newly emerging source of clean energy called Osmotic power has attracted much attention to the researcher, which derived from salinity gradients found worldwide where two sources of water with different salinities are available next to each other (Y. C. Kim Elimelech, 2013).ÂÂ   The availability and predictability of osmotic power are much greater than the intermittent renewables like wind and solar. Salinity gradient is the difference in salt concentration between two solutions. The enormous amount of energy released from the mixing of two solutions of different salinities and this amount rises for higher concentration difference between the solutions. Small-scale investigations have been done for the mixing of freshwater and seawater, which reported that 2.6 MW energy produced for a flow of 1m3/s freshwater when mixed with seawater (Veerman, Saakes, Metz, Harmsen, 2009). Several technologies are being used to harvest osmotic power such as reverse electrodialysis (RED) (Achilli Childress, 2010) (Yip Elimelech, 2012),ÂÂ   pressure retarded osmosisÂÂ   (PRO) (Altaee Sharif, 2015)(Thorsen Holt, 2009)(Norman S., 2016), capacitive mixing (CAPMIX) (Reuters News Agency, n.d.), and hydrogel mixing (J. Kim, Jeong, Park, Shon, Kim, 2015). Among the technologies, RED and PRO are more advanced and demonstrated at pilot scale and both converts chemical potential to useful wo rk by the controlled mixing of two solutions of different salt concentration (Achilli Childress, 2010)(Yip Elimelech, 2014). RED is a membrane-based technology, which is driven by the Nernst potential, a manifestation of chemical potential difference. It uses a stack of altering ion exchange membranes that selectively allows ion permeation across the membranes. The net ion flux across the membranes is converted directly to electric current (Norman S., 2016)(Pattle, 1954). The process is very efficient for power generation but economically inefficient. The cost prices of available RED membrane is out of range, and recent investigations have showed that the price has to be reduced a hundred times to make the technology affordable (Post et al., 2010). The development of such type of membranes is very time consuming and difficult to achieve (Turek Bandura, 2007). Also, The operations of the RED process is complex and highly sensitive to the process parameters, which requires elaborate control system (Altaee Sharif, 2015). Alike reverse electrodialysis, PRO is also a membrane-based technology, but the difference is, PRO uses a single salt-rejecting semipermeable membrane instead of a stack of ion-exchange membranes. It utilizes the salinity gradient as osmotic power difference to drive the water permeation across the membrane from low salinity feed solution to high salinity draw solution. The expanding volume of draw solution flows through a hydro-turbine that generates useful mechanical and electrical works [18][19]. The design and operations of PRO are much simpler, and it does not depend too much on operational parameters except operating pressure of membrane at draw solution side. The recent analysis shows that PRO can achieve both greater efficiencies and power densities than RED and other existing technologies [14]. Most of the PRO studies have been focused on the mixing of seawater and freshwater, but this mixing scheme has been found to be unfeasible due to the lower power densities. Researchers agree that more study is necessary to assess the feasibility of processes based on streams of higher salinity. One of such processes is the energy recovery from desalination units by taking advantages of the mixing of discharged brine and seawater. Another process is the mixing of seawater with high salinity produced water from oil and natural gas exploration. However, the main problems of these process are concentraion polarization and salt leakage, which limit the PRO performance by reducing the driving force across the membrane. Before investigations to establish a viable PRO process for the large-scale operation, have focused on developing high-performance membrane and setting up suitable conditions to maximize the energy yields. Several thermodynamic properties are necessary to set up appropriate conditions to assess the performance of PRO process. The first of them is the Gibbs free energy of mixing because it provides the upper limit to the shaft power that is possible to recover from a mixing process, which occurs at constant temperature and pressure. Another property is osmotic pressure, which in necessary to establish operating pressure at different parts of the plant. Entropies and enthalpies are needed to evaluate the mechanical power of the rotary equipment involved. This work demonstrates a thermodynamic model to evaluate all of them in order to maximize the power recovery from PRO process. The Q-electrolattice equation of (EOS), which extends a lattice-based fluid model for electrolyte solutions, is adopted. The model also includes recently developed equations for PRO that considers concentration polarization; reverse salt permeability, and membrane fouling to predict water and salt flux across the membrane. In addition, most PRO models are based on solutions of Na+ and Cl ions only, whereas, in practice, saline water contains other ions in addition to these two.ÂÂ   This work reports simulations of PRO processes that consider the presence of multiple ions in solutions (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl- and SO42-). The existing model mostly uses different platforms to calculate osmotic power, power density, and flux across the membrane (e.g. OLI-software is used to calculate osmotic power and another program for flux and power density), that increase the possibility of getting erroneous value because all these are inter-dependent. On the other hand, this model constantly and accurately determines all of them by a single program. Initial investigations have been done for freshwater+sewater and seawater+brine systems with single-stage PRO configuration. The predicted osmotic pressure, water flux across the membrane and recoveries of mechanical power are in very good agreement with experimental literature data. This set of results suggests that the Q-electrolattice EOS is a suitable model for the calculation of thermodynamic properties needed to assess the performance of PRO plants.ÂÂ   Now, it is planning this model for very high salinity solutions with multiple stage configurations. A techno-economic analysis will be done for the feasibility study of PRO process implementing at industrial scale. Aim and Objectives: The aim of this work is to develop a thermoynamic model based on Q-electrolattice equation of state for PRO process, and implement it to predict different thermodynamic properties in order to caltulate water and salt flux across the membrane and power densities. The various objectives associated with this aim are delineated below: Implement Q-electrolattice equation of state for the solutions of multiple salts to calculate osmotic power and verify the results with literature experimental data. Implement recently developed mass and salt flux equations, which considered concentration polarization, reverse salt flux and fouling of membrane. Implement basic thermodynamic relations for PRO units to determine entropies and enethalpies accurately. Develop the model for freshwater-seawater system with single stage configuration and extended it for higher salinity system with multiple stage configuration. Implement the cost equations to determine the capital cost for installation of the PRO units. Literature Review Q-elctrolattice equation of state The elctrolattice equation of state (EOS) was developed using the same methodology presented by Myers et al. (Myers, Sandler, Wood, 2002), based on the Helmholtz energy approach. The residual Helmholtz energy at a given temperature and volume is calculated by the addition various contributions along a hypothetical path.ÂÂ   These contributions consist of ion-solvent and solvent-solvent interaction over the short range, solvation effects, and ion-ion interactions over the long range. The total process is divided into four steps along a thermodynamic path( a. Zuber et al., 2013): Step-1: It is assumed that a reference mixture consisting of charged ions and molecules is in a hypothetical ideal gas state at temperature T and volume V. In the first step, the charges on all ions are removed. The change in Helmholtz energy is accounted by the Born equation for ions in a vacuum, Step-2: The short-range attractive dispersion and repulsive forces due to excluded volume are turned on. Also, self-association of solvent molecules can occur. The MTC EOS is used to calculate the change in Helmholtz energy for this step,. Step-3: The ions are recharged. The change in Helmholtz energy is accounted for by the Born equation for ions in a dielectric solvent, Step-4: The long-range interactions among the ions in solution are taken into account using the Mean Spherical Approximation (MSA), and the corresponding change in the molar Helmholtz free energy is denoted by . The residual Helmholtz energy for forming an electrolyte solution is thus given by: wherein So, To model electrostatic interactions, a single salt electrolyte solution is divided into five regions: three for solvent (D, ÃŽÂ ±, and ÃŽÂ ²), one for cation (C) and one for anion (A). To determine the MTC Helmholtz energy change, the model uses seven parameters to represent pure solvents.ÂÂ   The model assumes that the region-region interaction (except for ÃŽÂ ±-ÃŽÂ ²) are dispersion interactions, which are temperature dependent. In addition, it also assumed that the short-range interactions between the ÃŽÂ ± and ÃŽÂ ² region are zero.ÂÂ   This is summarized below: In addition, hydrogen bonding interactions are taken to be temperature independent. It is assumed that the interaction between the solvent and each charged species is equal; short-range interaction between opposite ions and same charge are neglected altogether.ÂÂ   This is summarized below: The Q-electrolattice equation of state is an extended version of the EOS in which an explicit MSA term is used which allows for unequal ionic diameters (which are ultimately regressed using experimental data). PRO principles Basic Theory Reference: Achilli, A., Childress, A. E. (2010). Pressure retarded osmosis: From the vision of Sidney Loeb to the first prototype installation Review. Desalination, 261(3), 205-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.06.017 Altaee, A., Sharif, A. (2015). Pressure retarded osmosis: advancement in the process applications for power generation and desalination. In Desalination (Vol. 356, pp. 31-46). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.09.028 Efraty, A. (2013). Pressure retarded osmosis in closed circuit: a new technology for clean power generation without need of energy recovery. Desalination and Water Treatment, 51(40-42), 7420-7430. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.793499 Kim, J., Jeong, K., Park, M. J., Shon, H. K., Kim, J. H. (2015). Recent advances in osmotic energy generation via pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO): A review. Energies, 8(10), 11821-11845. https://doi.org/10.3390/en81011821 Kim, Y. C., Elimelech, M. (2013). Potential of osmotic power generation by pressure retarded osmosis using seawater as feed solution: Analysis and experiments. Journal of Membrane Science, 429, 330-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.11.039 Myers, J. a., Sandler, S. I., Wood, R. H. (2002). An Equation of State for Electrolyte Solutions Covering Wide Ranges of Temperature, Pressure, and Composition. Industrial Engineering Chemistry Research, 41(13), 3282-3297. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie011016g Norman, S. L., S., R. (2016). Osmotic Power Plants Author ( s ): Sidney Loeb and Richard S . Norman. Science, 189(4203), 654-655. Pattle, R. E. (1954). Production of Electric Power by mixing Fresh and Salt Water in the Hydroelectric Pile. Nature. Post, J. W., Goeting, C. H., Valk, J., Goinga, S., Veerman, J., Hamelers, H. V. M., Hack, P. J. F. M. (2010). Towards implementation of reverse electrodialysis for power generation from salinity gradients. Desalination and Water Treatment, 16(1-3), 182-193. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1093 Reuters News Agency. (n.d.). Norway Opens Worlds First Osmotic Power Plant. Retrieved January 17, 2013, from http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/11/24/us-nor way-osmotic-idUSTRE5A-N20Q20091124 Sharif, A., Merdaw, A., Aryafar, M., Nicoll, P. (2014). Theoretical and Experimental Investigations of the Potential of Osmotic Energy for Power Production. In Membranes (Vol. 4, pp. 447-468). https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes4030447 Straub, A. P., Deshmukh, A., Elimelech, M. (2015). Pressure-retarded osmosis for power generation from salinity gradients: is it viable? Energy Environ. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EE02985F Thorsen, T., Holt, T. (2009). The potential for power production from salinity gradients by pressure retarded osmosis, 335, 103-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2009.03.003 Turek, M., Bandura, B. (2007). Renewable energy by reverse electrodialysis. Desalination, 205(1-3), 67-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.04.041 Veerman, J., Saakes, M., Metz, S. J., Harmsen, G. J. (2009). Reverse electrodialysis: Performance of a stack with 50 cells on the mixing of sea and river water. Journal of Membrane Science, 327(1-2), 136-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.11.015 Yip, N. Y., Elimelech, M. (2012). Thermodynamic and energy efficiency analysis of power generation from natural salinity gradients by pressure retarded osmosis. Environmental Science and Technology, 46(9), 5230-5239. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300060m Yip, N. Y., Elimelech, M. (2014). Comparison of Energy Efficiency and Power Density in Pressure Retarded Osmosis and Reverse Electrodialysis (7th Editio). Yip, N. Y., Tiraferri, A., Phillip, W. A., Schiffman, J. D., Hoover, L. A., Kim, Y. C., Elimelech, M. (2011). Thin-film composite pressure retarded osmosis membranes for sustainable power generation from salinity gradients{_}. Environmental Science and Technology, 45(10), 4360-4369. https://doi.org/10.1021/es104325z Zuber, A., Figueiredo, R., Castier, M. (2014). Fluid Phase Equilibria Thermodynamic properties of aqueous solutions of single and multiple salts using the Q-electrolattice equation of state. Fluid Phase Equilibria, 362, 268-280. Zuber,ÂÂ   a., Checoni, R. F., Mathew, R., Santos, J. P. L., Tavares, F. W., Castier, M. (2013). Thermodynamic Properties of 1:1 Salt Aqueous Solutions with the Electrolattice Equation of State. Oil Gas Science and Technology Revue dIFP Energies Nouvelles, 68(2), 255-270. https://doi.org/10.2516/ogst/2012088 This work focuses on developing a thermodynamic model to analyse the energy efficiency of a PRO process in order to maximize the power recovery. It uses Q-electrolattice equation of state (developed for mixtures with mixed electrolytes) that can accurately determine various thermodynamics properties such as vapor pressure, osmotic coefficient, osmotic pressure, entropy and enthalpy at different conditions of concentration temperature and pressure (A. Zuber, Figueiredo, Castier, 2014). The model is implemented to XSEOS excel tool to calculate these thermodynamic properties. Moreover, it does not have any limitations to calculate osmotic pressure and other properties for very high concentraion solution containing multiple salts at extreme high temperation and pressure conditions. Achilli, A., Childress, A. E. (2010). Pressure retarded osmosis: From the vision of Sidney Loeb to the first prototype installation Review. Desalination, 261(3), 205-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.06.017 Altaee, A., Sharif, A. (2015). Pressure retarded osmosis: advancement in the process applications for power generation and desalination. In Desalination (Vol. 356, pp. 31-46). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.09.028 Efraty, A. (2013). Pressure retarded osmosis in closed circuit: a new technology for clean power generation without need of energy recovery. Desalination and Water Treatment, 51(40-42), 7420-7430. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.793499 Kim, J., Jeong, K., Park, M. J., Shon, H. K., Kim, J. H. (2015). Recent advances in osmotic energy generation via pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO): A review. Energies, 8(10), 11821-11845. https://doi.org/10.3390/en81011821 Kim, Y. C., Elimelech, M. (2013). Potential of osmotic power generation by pressure retarded osmosis using seawater as feed solution: Analysis and experiments. Journal of Membrane Science, 429, 330-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.11.039 Myers, J. a., Sandler, S. I., Wood, R. H. (2002). An Equation of State for Electrolyte Solutions Covering Wide Ranges of Temperature, Pressure, and Composition. Industrial Engineering Chemistry Research, 41(13), 3282-3297. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie011016g Norman, S. L., S., R. (2016). Osmotic Power Plants Author ( s ): Sidney Loeb and Richard S . Norman. Science, 189(4203), 654-655. Pattle, R. E. (1954). Production of Electric Power by mixing Fresh and Salt Water in the Hydroelectric Pile. Nature. Post, J. W., Goeting, C. H., Valk, J., Goinga, S., Veerman, J., Hamelers, H. V. M., Hack, P. J. F. M. (2010). Towards implementation of reverse electrodialysis for power generation from salinity gradients. Desalination and Water Treatment, 16(1-3), 182-193. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2010.1093 Reuters News Agency. (n.d.). Norway Opens Worlds First Osmotic Power Plant. Retrieved January 17, 2013, from http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/11/24/us-nor way-osmotic-idUSTRE5A-N20Q20091124 Sharif, A., Merdaw, A., Aryafar, M., Nicoll, P. (2014). Theoretical and Experimental Investigations of the Potential of Osmotic Energy for Power Production. In Membranes (Vol. 4, pp. 447-468). https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes4030447 Straub, A. P., Deshmukh, A., Elimelech, M. (2015). Pressure-retarded osmosis for power generation from salinity gradients: is it viable? Energy Environ. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EE02985F Thorsen, T., Holt, T. (2009). The potential for power production from salinity gradients by pressure retarded osmosis, 335, 103-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2009.03.003 Turek, M., Bandura, B. (2007). Renewable energy by reverse electrodialysis. Desalination, 205(1-3), 67-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.04.041 Veerman, J., Saakes, M., Metz, S. J., Harmsen, G. J. (2009). Reverse electrodialysis: Performance of a stack with 50 cells on the mixing of sea and river water. Journal of Membrane Science, 327(1-2), 136-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.11.015 Yip, N. Y., Elimelech, M. (2012). Thermodynamic and energy efficiency analysis of power generation from natural salinity gradients by pressure retarded osmosis. Environmental Science and Technology, 46(9), 5230-5239. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300060m Yip, N. Y., Elimelech, M. (2014). Comparison of Energy Efficiency and Power Density in Pressure Retarded Osmosis and Reverse Electrodialysis (7th Editio). Yip, N. Y., Tiraferri, A., Phillip, W. A., Schiffman, J. D., Hoover, L. A., Kim, Y. C., Elimelech, M. (2011). Thin-film composite pressure retarded osmosis membranes for sustainable power generation from salinity gradients{_}. Environmental Science and Technology, 45(10), 4360-4369. https://doi.org/10.1021/es104325z Zuber, A., Figueiredo, R., Castier, M. (2014). Fluid Phase Equilibria Thermodynamic properties of aqueous solutions of single and multiple salts using the Q-electrolattice equation of state. Fluid Phase Equilibria, 362, 268-280. Zuber,ÂÂ   a., Checoni, R. F., Mathew, R., Santos, J. P. L., Tavares, F. W., Castier, M. (2013). Thermodynamic Properties of 1:1 Salt Aqueous Solutions with the Electrolattice Equation of State. Oil Gas Science and Technology Revue dIFP Energies Nouvelles, 68(2), 255-270. https://doi.org/10.2516/ogst/2012088 [1] All fossil fuel reserve and consumption data from CIA World Factbook

Personal Environmental Ethics :: essays research papers

There are some people who believe that the United States' strictly forced endangered species laws seriously hamper our economy. I on the other hand must disagree. The endangered species laws were created for an important reason: to protect our earth's biological diversity. Whenever humanity interferes with the ecosystem for the purpose of economic growth it tears it apart piece by piece. It is for reasons like these we must have such tough laws, as in the Endangered Species Act. The fact of the matter is that a problem still exists today. Many policy-makers and forest industry representatives argue that the current forest and wildlife conditions constitute a "forest health crisis"(Peters, Frost, & Pace, 1999). The current crisis results from companies who tear down forests for their own profit. By doing this not only is the forest itself being destroyed, but the wildlife within it. Furthermore, in 1990 the EPA's scientific research team stated that destruction of habit ats, and species extinction are two of the four most critical global environmental issues (Biodiversity, 1999). As can be seen, companies who destroy the ecosystem for economic gain are creating irreversible problems that future laws cannot correct. To prevent further problems from occurring we must maintain all biodiversity laws. The basis of the laws are to protect all life, including all human life; and are crucial for present and future generations (Biodiversity, 1999). The federal government has taken charge of this situation, most notably through its endangered species protection efforts (Biodiversity, 1999). This has become a controversial, but necessary step in protection our ecosystem and all of the valuable resources it has to offer. Understanding those environmental issues are subjects of disagreement arising from different perspectives and values; the controversy of economic gain verse ecological conservation is not easily settled. I support wildlife preservation only to prevent extinction. I believe without these laws that we as humans will suffer greatly, because we would be unable to reap the benefits of the ecosystem. I agree with the congressional findings that various species of fish, wildlife, and plants have been rendered extinct as a consequence of economic growth and development intemperate by adequate concern and conservation (O'Laughlin, 1998).

Bill Cosby :: essays research papers

Bill Cosby was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 12, 1937. He was the oldest of four boys. He had three brothers, and their names were: James, Russell, and Robert. His father ran away near Christmas time when he was very young and he had to get a job to help support the family. In school he was the class clown and was sent to a special school for rowdy boys. In his new school his teacher was Mary Forchic. She saw that he was a great comedian and she put that into her lessons to make them more understandable for Bill. She made the lessons fun for him and made it easier to learn. He said that she made him what he is today. After a couple years he went back to his old school and even though his grades were dropping he still kept it together. Bill was starting to look up to comedians on the radio and the TV. They were comedians like Sam Levenson, Sid Caesar, and Carl Reiner. Even though his grades were poor in junior high, when he took the standardized tests he was accepted to Central High School, which was a school for all the gifted children in Pennsylvania. Now being six feet, he was on the high school football team. But in the first week of football he broke his arm. Since there were few blacks in the school and he was slightly a target of biggotous remarks he went back to getting attention by clowning around in class again. He was later sent to Germantown Highschool where all his neighborhood friends went. He was back with his friends but his grades started to drop. He was left back twice. He was also too old to participate in the city track meets (which he could easily win). Bill dropped out of high school. He went to be a shoemaker=s helper, but the shoemaker didn=t like it when he nailed the ladies heels onto the mens shoes!Then Bill decided to join the Navy. There he found discipline and no room to joke around. He spent four long years in the Navy but he says that it made him more mature and able to control himself better. He was trained as a physical therapist. Helping men who lost their legs and arms, he finally realized how lucky he was. While in the Navy

The Assassination of the Mayor of Castro Street Essay -- Essays Papers

The Assassination of the Mayor of Castro Street and the Consensus of the Judicial System It was November 27th, 1978. There was a cheerful atmosphere in San Francisco’s City Hall that morning. Supervisor Harvey Milk’s good mood was due to Mayor George Moscone’s upcoming announcement to the press. He was going to publicize that he had decided not to reappoint the ultra-conservative "voice for the family", Dan White, back to the board of supervisors. Harvey Milk was a fierce advocate of this political move, for he was the first openly gay elected official, and thus, the most important political leader for homosexuals at the time. Dan White, on the other hand, enforced family values and therefore was not someone that supported this progressive civil rights movement. Thus, the opposition towards Dan White shown by his colleges and the minorities of the community was a new victory for the homosexual rights movement and the many supporters of Harvey Milk. However, Dan White had other plans. The press did not hear that announcement, but instead saw this: [vi deo of announcement of assassinations, "As president of the Board of Supervisors it is my duty to make this announcement . . . Both Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk have been shot and killed. The suspect . . . is Supervisor Dan White.", Dianne Feinstein.] (Epstein & Schmiechen, 1984). Dan White abruptly and severely altered the success of the civil rights movement occurring in the most liberal city of its time. Richard DeLeon states this in his book, Left Coast City: Progressive Politics of San Francisco 1975-1991, "†¦this sad episode in San Francisco’s political history almost certainly delayed the opportunity to fulfill Mayor Moscone’s progressive agenda through the nine ye... ...duced. Their personal negative predisposition towards homosexuals was the underlying principle for their conviction. This obvious stigma associated with Harvey Milk’s sexuality was an instant and enormous step backward in all that Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Milk had accomplished. It is a shame that while the United States is supposed to be the most powerful country in the world, the structure of its judicial system has obvious flaws, which have not been modified for over two hundred years. To fix this problem of the oppression of minorities, one of two things needs to happen. Either the jury system needs to be modified, or society needs to be mature enough to respect each individual without discrimination towards race, gender, or sexual orientation. Until these changes occur, our judicial system will continue to allow people like Dan White to get away with murder.

Healthcare System in Cuba

8)  Sources †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 16 )  HISTORY Modern Western medicine has been practiced in Cuba by formally trained  doctors  since at least the beginning of the 19th century and the first surgical clinic was established in 1823. Cuba has had many world class doctors, including  Carlos Finlay, whose mosquito-based theory of  yellow fever  transmission was given its final proof under the direction of  Walter Reed,  James Carroll, and  Aristides Agramonte. During the period of U. S presence (1898–1902) yellow fever was essentially eliminated due to the efforts of  Clara Maass  and surgeon Jesse W. Lazear.In 1976, Cuba's healthcare program was enshrined in Article 50 of the revised  Cuban constitution  which states â€Å"Everyone has the right to health protection and care. The state guarantees this righ t by providing free medical and hospital care by means of the installations of the rural medical service network, polyclinics, hospitals, preventative and specialized treatment centers; by providing free dental care; by promoting the health publicity campaigns, health education, regular medical examinations, general vaccinations and other measures to prevent the outbreak of disease.All the population cooperates in these activities and plans through the social and mass organizations. Cuba's doctor to patient ratio grew significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, from 9. 2 doctors per 10,000 inhabitants in 1958, to 58. 2 per 10,000 in 1999. In the 1960s the government implemented a program of almost universal  vaccinations. This helped eradicate many contagious diseases including  polio  and  rubella, though some diseases increased during the period of economic hardship of the 1990s, such as  tuberculosis,  hepatitis  and  chicken pox.Other campaigns included a program to reduce the infant mortality rate in 1970 directed at maternal and prenatal care. 1. POST-SOVIET UNION The loss of Soviet subsidies brought famine to Cuba in the early 1990s. In 2007, Cuba announced that it has undertaken computerizing and creating national networks in Blood Banks, Nephrology and Medical Images. Cuba is the second country in the world with such a product, only preceded by France.Cuba is preparing a Computerized Health Register, Hospital Management System, Primary Health Care, Academic Affairs, Medical Genetic Projects, Neurosciences, and Educational Software. The aim is to maintain quality health service free for the Cuban people, increase exchange among experts and boost research-development projects. An important link in wiring process is to guarantee access to Cuba's Data Transmission Network and Health Website (INFOMED) to all units and workers of the national health ystem. 2)  PRESENT | | | | |WHO  health statistics for Cuba | |[Source:  WHO country page on Cuba] | |Life expectancy at birth m/f: |76. 0/80. (years) | |Healthy life expectancy at birth m/f: |67. 1/69. 5 (years) | |Child mortality m/f: |8/7 (per 1000) | |Adult mortality m/f: |131/85 (per 1000) | |Total health expenditure per capita: |$251 | |Total health expenditure as  % of GDP: |7. 3 | Rank |Countries | |Statistic |Date of | | |surveyed | | |Information | |125 |167 |HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate |0. 10% |2003 est. | |162 |175 |Fertility rate |1. 66 (children/woman) |2006. | |153 |224 |Birth rate |11. 9 (births/1,000 population) |2006 est. | |168 |226 |Infant mortality rate |6. 04 (deaths/1,000 live births) |2006. | |129 |224 |Death rate |6. 33 (deaths/1,000 population) |2005. | |37 |225 |Life expectancy at birth |77. 23 (years) |2006. est | |17 |99 |Suicide rate |18. 3 per 100,000 people per year |1996. | 3)  COMPARISON OF PRE- AND POST-REVOLUTIONARY INDICES |Cuba: Public health 1950-2005 | |   |Years | | | 1. HEALTH INDICATORS AND ISSUES Cuba bega n a food rationing program in 1962 to guarantee all citizens a low-priced basket of basic foods.As of 2007, the government was spending about $1 billion annually to subsidise the food ration. The ration would cost about $50 at an average grocery store in the United States, but the Cuban citizen pays only $1. 20 for it. The ration includes rice, legumes, potatoes, bread, eggs, and a small amount of meat. It provides about 30 to 70 percent of the 3,300 kilocalories that the average Cuban consumes daily. The people obtain the rest of their food from government stores (Tiendas), free market stores and cooperatives, barter, their own gardens, and the black market.According to the Pan American Health Organization, daily caloric intake per person in various places in 2003 were as follows (unit is kilocalories): Cuba, 3,286; America, 3,205; Latin America and the Caribbean, 2,875; Latin Caribbean countries, 2,593; United States, 3,754. The table below shows the relative seriousness of commun icable diseases, non-communicable diseases (e. g. , heart disease and cancer) and injuries, in various parts of the world. Data is from the World Health Organisation and is for year 2004. Distribution of years of life lost by cause (%) | |Place |Communicable |Non-communicable |Injuries | |Cuba |9 |75 |16 | |World |51 |34 |14 | |High income countries |8 |77 |15 | |United States |9 |73 |18 | |Low income countries |68 |21 |10 | | | |Source: World Health Organisation. World Health Statistics 2009, Table 2, â€Å"Cause-specific | |mortality and morbidity†. | Like the rest of the  Cuban economy, numerous reports have shown that Cuban medical care has long suffered from severe material shortages caused by the  US embargo. The ending of Soviet subsidies in the early 1990s has also affected it. While  preventive medical care,  diagnostic tests  and  medication  for hospitalized patients are free, some aspects of healthcare are paid for by the patient.Items which are paid by patients who can afford it are: drugs prescribed on an  outpatient  basis, hearing,  dental, and  orthopedic  processes,  wheelchairs  and  crutches. When a patient can obtain these items at state stores, prices tend to be low as these items are subsidized by the state. For patients on a low-income, these items are free of charge. 2. SEXUAL HEALTH †¢ According to the  UNAIDS  report of 2003 there were an estimated 3,300 Cubans living with  HIV/AIDS  (approx 0. 05% of the population). In the mid-1980s, when little was known about the virus, Cuba compulsorily tested thousands of its citizens for  HIV. Those who tested positive were taken toLos Cocos and were not allowed to leave. The policy drew criticism from the United Nations  and was discontinued in the 1990s. Since 1996 Cuba began the production of generic  anti-retroviral  drugs reducing the costs to well below that of developing countries. This has been made possible through the substant ial government subsidies to treatment. †¢ In 2003 Cuba had the lowest HIV prevalence in the Americas and one of the lowest in the world. The  UNAIDS  reported that HIV infection rates for Cuba were 0. 1%, and for other countries in the Caribbean between 1 – 4%. Education in Cuba concerning issues of HIV infection and AIDS is implemented by the  Cuban National Center for Sex Education. According to  Avert, an international  AIDS  charity, â€Å"Cuba’s epidemic remains by far the smallest in the Caribbean. †Ã‚  They add however that †¦ new HIV infections are on the rise, and Cuba’s preventive measures appear not to be keeping pace with conditions that favour the spread of HIV, including widening income inequalities and a growing sex industry. At the same time, Cuba’s prevention of mother-to-child transmission programme remains highly effective. All pregnant women are tested for HIV, and those testing positive receive antiretrovi ral drugs. †¢ In recent years because of the rise in  prostitution  due to  tourism,  STDs  have increased. 3. 3 EMBARGODuring the 90s the ongoing  United States embargo against Cuba  caused problems due to restrictions on the export of medicines from the US to Cuba. In 1992 the US embargo was made more stringent with the passage of the  Cuban Democracy Act  resulting in all U. S. subsidiary trade, including trade in food and medicines, being prohibited. The legislation did not state that Cuba cannot purchase medicines from U. S. companies or their foreign subsidiaries; however, such license requests have been routinely denied. In 1995 the  Inter-American Commission on Human Rights  of the Organization of American States informed the U. S. Government that such activities violate international law and has requested that the U. S. ake immediate steps to exempt medicine from the embargo. The Lancet  and the  British Medical Journal  also condemned the e mbargo in the 90s. A 1997 report prepared by  Oxfam  America and the  Washington Office on Latin America,  Myths And Facts About The U. S. Embargo On Medicine And Medical Supplies, concluded that the embargo forced Cuba to use more of its limited resources on medical imports, both because equipment and drugs from foreign subsidiaries of U. S. firms or from non-U. S. sources tend to be higher priced and because shipping costs are greater. The Democracy Act of 1992 further exacerbated the problems in Cuba's medical system. It prohibited foreign subsidiaries of U. S. orporations from selling to Cuba, thus further limiting Cuba's access to medicine and equipment, and raising prices. In addition, the act forbids ships that dock in Cuban ports from docking in U. S. ports for six months. This drastically restricts shipping, and increases shipping cost some 30%. 3. 4 MEDICAL STAFF IN CUBA According to the World Health Organization, Cuba provides a doctor for every 170 residents, and has the second highest doctor to patient ratio in the world after Italy. Medical professionals are not paid high salaries by international standards. In 2002 the mean monthly salary was 261 pesos, 1. 5 times the national mean. A doctor’s salary in the late 1990s was equivalent to about US$15–20 per month in purchasing power.Therefore, some prefer to work in different occupations, for example in the lucrative tourist industry where earnings can be much higher. The  San Francisco Chronicle, the  Washington Post, and  National Public Radio  have all reported on Cuban doctors defecting to other countries. 3. 5  BLACK MARKET HEALTHCARE The difficulty in gaining access to certain medicines and treatments has led to healthcare playing an increasing role in Cuba's burgeoning  black market  economy, sometimes termed â€Å"sociolismo†. According to former leading Cuban  neurosurgeon  and  dissident  Dr  Hilda Molina, â€Å"The doctors in the hosp itals are charging patients under the table for better or quicker service. † Prices for out-of-surgery X-rays have been quoted at $50 to $60.Such â€Å"under-the-table payments† reportedly date back to the 1970s, when Cubans used gifts and tips in order to get health benefits. The harsh economic downturn known as the â€Å"Special Period† in the 1990s aggravated these payments. The advent of the â€Å"dollar economy†, a temporary legalization of the dollar which led some Cubans to receive dollars from their relatives outside of Cuba, meant that a class of Cubans was able to obtain medications and health services that would not be available to them otherwise. 4)  CUBA AND INTERNATIONAL HEALTHCARE In the 1970s, the Cuban state initiated bilateral service contracts and various money-making strategies.Cuba has entered into agreements with  United Nations  agencies specializing in health:  PAHO/WHO,  UNICEF, the  United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization  (FAO), the  United Nations Population Fund  (UNFPA), and the  United Nations Development Fund (UNDP). Since 1989, this collaboration has played a very important role in that Cuba, in addition to obtaining the benefits of being a member country, has strengthened its relations with institutions of excellence and has been able to disseminate some of its own advances and technologies Cuba currently exports considerable health services and personnel to Venezuela in exchange for subsidized  oil. Cuban doctors play a primary role in the  Mission Barrio Adentro (Spanish: â€Å"Mission Into the Neighborhood†) social welfare program established in Venezuela under current Venezuelan president  Hugo Chavez.The program, which is popular among Venezuela's poor and is intended to bring doctors and other medical services to the most remote slums of Venezuela,  has not been without its detractors. Operacion Milagro (Operation Miracle) is a joint health program be tween Cuba and Venezuela, set up in 2005. Human Rights Watch  complains that the government â€Å"bars citizens engaged in authorized travel from taking their children with them overseas, essentially holding the children hostage to guarantee the parents' return. Given the widespread fear of forced family separation, these travel restrictions provide the Cuban government with a powerful tool for punishing defectors and silencing critics. †Ã‚  Doctors are reported to be monitored by â€Å"minders† and subject to curfew.The Cuban government uses relatives as hostages to prevent doctors from defecting. According to a paper published in  The Lancet  medical journal, â€Å"growing numbers of Cuban doctors sent overseas to work are defecting to the USA†, some via Colombia, where they have sought temporary asylum. Cuban doctors have been part of a large-scale plan by the Cuban state to provide free medical aid and services to the international community (especiall y third world countries) following natural disasters. Currently dozens of American medical students are trained to assist in these donations at the Escuela Latino Americana de Medecina (ELAM) in Cuba. 4. 1  HEALTH TOURISM AND PHARMACEUTICSCuba attracts about 20,000  paying  health tourists, generating revenues of around $40 million a year for the Cuban economy. Cuba has been serving health tourists from around the world for more than 20 years. The country operates a special division of hospitals specifically for the treatment of foreigners and diplomats. Foreign patients travel to Cuba for a wide range of treatments including  eye-surgery,  neurological  disorders such as  multiple sclerosis  and  Parkinson’s disease,  cosmetic surgery, addictions treatment,  retinitis pigmentosa  and orthopaedics. Most patients are from Latin America, Europe and Canada, and a growing number of Americans also are coming.Cuba also successfully exports many medical produ cts, such as  vaccines. By 1998, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, the Cuban health sector had risen to occupy around two percent of total tourism. Some of these revenues are in turn transferred to health care for ordinary Cubans, although the size and importance of these transfers is both unknown and controversial. At one nationally prominent hospital/research institute, hard currency payments by foreigners have financed the construction of a new bathroom in the splanic surgery wing; anecdotal evidence suggests that this pattern is common in Cuban hospitals. 5)  ALTERNATIVE HEALTHCAREEconomic constraints and restrictions on medicines have forced the Cuban health system to incorporate  alternative  and  herbal  solutions to healthcare issues, which can be more accessible and affordable to a broader population. In the 1990s, the Cuban Ministry of Public Health officially recognized natural and  traditional medicine  and began it s integration into the already well established Western medicine model. Examples of alternative techniques used by the clinics and hospitals include:  flower essence, neural and hydromineral therapies,  homeopathy,  traditional Chinese medicine  (i. e. acupunctural  anesthesia for surgery), natural dietary supplements,  yoga, electromagnetic and laser devices.Cuban biochemists have produced a number of new alternative medicines, including PPG (policosanol), a natural product derived from sugarcane wax that is effective at reducing total cholesterol and LDL levels, and Vimang a natural product derived from the bark of  mango trees. 6)  MEDICAL RESEARCH IN CUBA The Cuban Ministry of Health produces a number of  medical journals  including the  ACIMED, the  Cuban Journal of Surgery  and the  Cuban Journal of Tropical Medicine. Because the U. S. government restricts investments in Cuba by U. S. companies and their affiliates, Cuban institutions have been limi ted in their ability to enter into research and development partnerships, although exceptions have been made for significant drugs. In April 2007, the Cuba IPV Study Collaborative Group reported in the  NewEngland Journal of Medicine  that inactivated (killed) poliovirus vaccine was effective in vaccinating children in tropical conditions. The Collaborative Group consisted of the Cuban Ministry of Public Health, Kouri Institute, U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pan American Health Organization, and the World Health Organization. This is important because countries with high incidence of polio are now using live oral poliovirus vaccine. When polio is eliminated in a country, they must stop using the live vaccine, because it has a slight risk of reverting to the dangerous form of polio. The collaborative group found that when polio is eliminated in a population, they could safely switch to killed vaccine and be protected from recurrent epidemics.Cuba has been free of polio since 1963, but continues with mass immunization campaigns. In the 1980s, Cuban scientists developed a vaccine against a strain of bacterial meningitis B, which eliminated what had been a serious disease on the island. The Cuban vaccine is used throughout Latin America. After outbreaks of meningitis B in the United States, the U. S. Treasury Department granted a license in 1999 to an American subsidiary of the pharmaceutical company SmithKline Beecham to enter into a deal to develop the vaccine for use in the U. S. and elsewhere. 7)  ANALYSIS In 2006,  BBC  flagship news programme  Newsnight  featured Cuba's Healthcare system as part of a series identifying â€Å"the world's best public services†.The report noted that â€Å"Thanks chiefly to the American economic blockade, but partly also to the web of strange rules and regulations that constrict Cuban life, the economy is in a terrible mess: national income per head is minuscule, and resources are amazin gly tight. Healthcare, however, is a top national priority† The report stated that life expectancy and infant mortality rates are nearly the same as the USA's. Its doctor-to-patient ratios stand comparison to any country in Western Europe. Its annual total health spend per head, however, comes in at $251; just over a tenth of the UK's. The report concluded that the population's admirable health is one of the key reasons why Castro is still in power.A 2006 poll carried out by  the Gallup Organization's Costa Rican affiliate — Consultoria Interdisciplinaria en Desarrollo (CID) — found that about three-quarters of urban Cubans responded positively to the question â€Å"do you have confidence to your country's health care system†. In 2001, members of the  UK  House of Commons  Health  Select Committee  travelled to Cuba and issued a report that paid tribute to â€Å"the success of the Cuban healthcare system†, based on its â€Å"strong emph asis on disease prevention† and â€Å"commitment to the practice of medicine in a community†. CUBA’S COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH PROGRAM: 1. Confronting the Real Disaster †¢ Direct long-term medical care †¢ Applying lessons from Cuban experience On-the-ground training of local personnel †¢ Development and sharing of research †¢ Academic training for Cubans at international sites †¢ Trilateral cooperation †¢ Scholarships for medical education †¢ 29 countries involved (21 in Africa) 2. Direct Medical Services – Strengthening Health Systems †¢ Bilateral government accords, identify needs †¢ Bolster public health infrastructure, capabilities †¢ Shared financial responsibility †¢ Mainly remote, rural postings †¢ Individual commitment/institutional commitment †¢ Numbers of professionals enough to make a difference 3. Challenges and Opportunities – Bolstering Local Public Health Systems Opportunitie sChallenges ___________________________________________________________________ SustainabilityFrustration with local infrastructure Increase understanding locallyBend to local opinions Long-range perspective, understandingVulnerable to govt changes, political will Horizontal model, broad presenceIntegrate vertical programs Increase staffing for health systemCreate felt need in population Broad skill setMismatched, narrow skill set 4. Training Professionals for Global Health †¢ At least 100,000 new doctors by 2015 †¢ Second Latin American Medical School †¢ Cuba has founded 11 medical schools and 2 nursing schools abroad †¢ Cuban professors teach in a dozen others 5. Health Equity & Cooperation: Challenges They Face $$ Resources |Lacking |Wise use (still lacking†¦) | |Goals |Disease driven |Healthy people driven | |Programs |Silos |Blankets | |Models |Stand-alone |Building health systems | |Priorities |Donor driven |Effective local leadership | |Investments |I n buildings |In people | |Reach |Pilot programs |Scaling Up | |Way |Independent |Real cooperation | |Movement |Band aids |Change | 8)  SOURCES †¢ The World Health Organisation, and its regional branch, the Pan American Health Organization, publish regular reports as well as making data available on the web. †¢ World Health Organisation,  World Health Statistics 2009  consists mostly of tables (. df format) of health indicators, for most countries, for selected years between 1990 and 2008. World Health Organisation,  National Accounts Series  consists of statistics on the financing of health care in various countries. Cuba tables covers years 1995-2007. †¢ Pan American Health Organisation,  Health situation in the Americas: Basic Indicators 2008. Table of health indicators for countries, one datum from a recent year (2000-2008) for each indicator. Pan American Health Organisation,  Health in the Americas 2007  is primarily a text report; also contains t ables. First section is on the region as a whole, second section is reports on individual countries, including Cuba.